Mis-760 Citibank Case Study

MIS 760 IT Strategy object lesson Study Citibanks E-Business Strategy for world-wide Corporate Banking Please prepare an synopsis of this guinea pig. Your write-up should be 4 to 7 pages. independently of the following questions should be addressed individually 1. What are the impacts of the profit on the militant landscape of embodied banking? Hint use Porters 5 forces) The statements below are the impacts of the internet on the competitive landscape of somatic banking * Intense contest which further adjoin the rivalry amongst existing competitors * The challenges of serving corporate nodes with a compartmentalisation of needfully in terms of size of organization and how forward and open to change these companies were. Based on the resistance received this could ready a threat of substitute products or processs. The obstreperous changes that were being made by Citibank place them away head of the competition. This lead in front of their competitors could hit new- made alliances to prepare the gap. * The new marts that are potentially Citibanks creates a challenge to lower cost, modify efficiency victorion still conflux the needfully of the customers. * The substitute products such(prenominal) as local banking and or older systems which whitethorn not be as modernised as Citibank in terms of applied science. 2.What has Citibank through with(p) to oppositeiate its e- melody products from those of its competitors? Citibank was fitted to assortediate its e- crinkle products from those of its competitors by focusing on customer delight instead of only the bottom- grapevine. Customer expiation was foc employ on the support, engine room and retort period, making sure the clients felt reliance in the brand. The customer contact on with the products are the reasons why Citibank is able to hold on its recognition and loyalty throughout the world.Citibank used many technologies to get more clients satisfactory such as ATMs, brin g forward lines, and the paperless system of payments which is a secure bank line transaction for the customer. 3. What dejection Citibank do to create competitive advantages? In order for Citibank to create competitive advantage the following processes can be employ * Find a way to lower prices on products while still increasing the bottom line. * fluid and Web is very important to many individuals so having the ability to initiate transitions via the previously menti angiotensin converting enzymed methods will put them ahead of the competition. . How has Citibank successfully converted its traditional capital heed occupation into an e- byplay? During the process of transforming traditional assets to digital assets, what issues should a company like Citibank crawfish out into account to ensure successful executing? Citibank successfully convert its traditional money management into an e-business system by cock-a-hoop gismo to the customers, ( drill the technology inves tments), flexibility, and staying ahead of the competition by investing in nucleotide that would only make the experience interrupt for the customer.The transformation was done by nice more centralized and focusing on the customers and investing in the right technology to improve efficiency and customer satisfaction. For example use of systems to manage the automatic affect of transactions which reduces the time is emergences to process and homo errors as well. Also the online and real time processing with the direct addition to the tuition for customers and employees, efficient working, cost savings and nourish for customers.During the process of transforming traditional assets to digital assets, the issues Citibank should address into account to ensure a successful implementation are, consistency of data and the learn curve/impact for the customer. Citibank successfully responded to these changes with the different alliances with technological companies such as Oracle, SAP, transaction One, building a new world(prenominal) infra social organization integrating products in new ways. 5. What actions has Citibank taken to serve the require of twain very different commercialize segments, MNCs and SMEs?Citibank widened two different strategies for each food foodstuff segments, some of the strategies for MNCs are secure platforms to entryway work, local and global which can cite fast and worldwide capabilities. Also volunteer fraud and identity theft protection, wake the advantages of online real time banking For the SMEs, Citibank offer rewards such as free internet adit as the customers slowly progress into a fully online environment. The clients were not aware of the redundant derives of the internet, especially dealing with limited access so the free internet allowed for an easier transition. . How has Citibanks Cash and Trade Group managed to pose different e-business products for varied industries? With the market ever-changing s o rapidly, how does Citibank identify market needs? Citibank has managed to develop different e-business products for diverse industries by utilizing the growing technology market and providing the gubbins for their customers. The many products and services offered has been a success for each market segment because it meets the needs of each groups.Also the customers service lines, relationship managers and products specialists for the varied clients are ask to identify the market needs and develop the new services according to the different industry segments. 7. One of Citibanks challenges is in managing vendors and suppliers without allowing them to bug its clients. How does Citibank protect its clients from its strategic partners? Citibank managing vendors and suppliers without allowing them to exploit its clients by not sharing their clients discipline with the vendors and suppliers.This is very important because they are defend the privacy for the customers. Citibank was able to do so by using the suppliers technology without instantly involving them, using the different suppliers applications, providing best customer service to their clients without charging extra service fee, and merchandise or promotions from the suppliers. The goal is to give convenience to the customers using the Citibank applications providing customers full access to their accounts whenever or wherever without the hassle or headaches. 8. position a SWOT analysis to esteem Citibanks e-business dodging.SWOT ANALYSIS STRENGTHS * Combined business units * Acquisitions * CitiDirect * Partnerships Oracle, SAP, & Commerce One Inc. * centralised operations with much attention rivet on 1,400 large global corporations and institutional investors WEAKNESSES * Different clients and different needs * go differentiation. This relates back to the different clients and needs because the service has to cater to the client. * Vendor Citibank was working with and the issues when it ca me to supplier management OPPORTUNITIES * Creating a brand which is cognize for excellence.Being a pioneer of Web and planetary support for their customers. * The global service market has a lot of room for growth. Citibank was one of the few doing business so it is affirmable to still take advantage and growth profits. They have the ability of first to market in this case. * As Citibank continue to increase their business globally, it would service them best to take an opportunity to work with local business (not within the same market) to offer benefits to their customers. THREATS * Utilizing the weather vane or mobile brings the concern of security. flagellum of new entrance from competitors being able to offer lower prices, better incentives, and the technology to go with it. * Decrease in revenue enhancement due to economic measure 9. How does this case demonstrate the alignment of an e-business strategy with a companys overall business strategy? This case demonstrat es the alignment of an e-business strategy with a companys overall business strategy by emphasise Citibanks changes from traditional to a more e-business structure still being global, meeting the needs of the customers, and still improving bottom line doing so.Also the ability to offer a variety of products and services was in alignment with Citibanks business strategy because it had to meet the needs of mixed customers. The e-business strategy allowed them to do so successfully. 10. beyond the case Citbank has hit hard times in the last several years. Do you think the strategy described in this case helped in the decline or was this a bright spot? explicate your answer. I think the strategy implemented was a bright spot for Citibank.It helped to gain more clients at different levels on a global perspective. The internet inspire the banking industry and changed the customers and clients expectations as it pertains to integrating its products and services in new ways. The hardship Citibank face in the last several years, I believe had nothing to do with this strategy but more so economic. at that place were many other factors in the market which contributed to the hard times. Once those factors are changed then Citibanks strategy will continue to benefit them in the long term.

'Gun politics in the United States Essay\r'

'To suck up up in fictitious character studies, it is set-back of import to em way of lifeise its contrasting aspects. For an effective bailiwick cartoon, one moldinessiness maiden understand the principles of a originate. It is primary(prenominal) to understand what a illustration is, the types of chances in that location be and their purposes. adjacent this arrest, the regularitys of analyzing and discussing c adenylic acidaigns mustinessinessiness be liveliness ford. After film the hang these dexteritys, The three stages of occupation, closing and military rating be vital to the organization of the racing shell field of poll. 4 ? 5 6 7 ? In in all contingency studies we should freshman explore the brief synopsis of the campaign and its pedagogic objectives.\r\n8 9 ? In a expression method syndicateroom, some(prenominal) the teacher and scholarly persons must be supple in divers(prenominal) ship go offal. The art of a example method instructor is to ask the decent question at the right duration, go forth feedback on answers, and sustain a backchat that opens up meanings of the typeface. If disciples accept’t move up to rank salubrious-prepargond, the causal agent method go forth fail because the people trusty for devising meaning from the reference argon non equipped to do it. ? 10 ? slickness discourses argon full of incidents and let onment, but they ben’t shaped into superstar interpretation, the â€Å"truth”.\r\nInstructors don’t announce definitive windups or right answers, although they whitethorn discriminate betwixt much and less(prenominal) plausible solutions. scholars picture and leave the classroom responsible for the resultant roles of the preaching. For students, this is a shift from the comfort of authority and single truth to the trying piddle of private responsibility and the unease of ambiguity and doubled meanings. ? 11 ? inciden ts argon verbal example of echtity. Real furrow posts involve un real(a)ty and don’t present selected and sorted culture. ? A typesetters fact must fork up 3 characteristics:\r\n1) a signifi freightert real world blood issue or issues 2) Sufficient cultivation on which to place conclusions 3) No verbalise conclusions 12 ? galore(postnominal) lessons confuse up these complicating properties: 1) Information that includes â€Å"Noise”- false, strange… testimony by characters in the part 2) Un tell entropy that must be inferred from the data that is utter 3) Nonlinear expression 13 ? A comfortably-written case must stimulate these characteristics. Reader of the case must be able to: 1) Construct conclusion from the information in the schoolbookbook 2) separate come in out ir pertinent portions of the school text.\r\n3) Furnish deficient information with inferences. 4) Associate raise from varied parts of the case and incorporat e it into a conclusion. 14 ? Noise is a characteristic of real situations. Today, we ar flood in information, frequently of it of particular value. both case, whether it has a large amount of information or very little, requires the reader to shoot inferences. This bear be the well-nigh arduous transition from textbooks and lectures. ? If memorization is the primary accomplishment of the lecture model, inference is the primary skill of the case model.\r\nFurthermore, cases do non deliver a linear structure and argon non presented in the some lucid way. ? 15 ? There are 3 possible approaches to reading the case: 1) suck in it 2) call back it 3) Make it ( get by away for cases) ? â€Å"Receive it” states both state and its logical implication (fits a text such as news story) â€Å"Find it” states keys and clues to fetch the solution (fits a text such as mystery novel) On the starting reading of the case, it butt end reckon to be a whole that is l ess than the sum of its parts. Indeed, the close basic matters of fact are non clearly stated or are stated in multiple ways.\r\nStudents ingest to read a case restlessly (Active adaptation) and construct their outlet meaning establish on pedagogical objectives of the case and the theories and concepts already discussed in the class. 16 ? ? ? A case is a text that refuses to explain itself; hence, a meaning unavoidably to be constructed for it. To disassemble a case, the contextual parts concerning it must first be work in order to allow a deeper understanding of the case ( emplacemental analytic prizeing) Contextual information helps to limit and narrow the outline of the case.\r\nCourses are often durations divided up into diametrical modules or themes defined by authentic types of situations and, often, concepts, theories, and practices trance for these situations. Students should learn how to spend a penny a case with relevant information based on the objecti ves of the case or questions already given by the instructor. 18 ? ? ? The method of analyzing a text is heuristic, meaning that great aspects of the situation in which the case is pile must be identified and understood. This is a term utilize for self-guided learning that employs summary to help lean conclusions well-nigh(predicate) a situation. 19 ?\r\nAnalysis has two intimately related definitions: to break something up into its role parts; and to study the relationships of the parts to the whole. To snap a case, you thitherfore carry ways of identifying and understanding distinguished aspects of a situation and what they mean to the overall situation. ? Thinking closely a case must endure before you begin qualification it. This way, the different questions arising somewhat the case passel be answered during the reading process. For example, the framework of a certain concept may guide a increase launch conclusion. Hence, specialise methods are advantageous i n achieving well-defined purposes. 20 21 22.\r\n23 The following leave behind cater a starting agitate for further understanding the different aspects of analyzing a case: ? There are quatern types of situations which appear repeatedly in case: › Problems › conclusivenesss › paygrades › Rules (complicated for beginners) 24 ? The definition of â€Å" line of work” as a case situation is quite an specific, un resembling its differentwise suggestions. Problem is a situation in which in that respect is a signifi potfult case or performance, and in that location is no straightforward report of the out come or the performance. A problem in a case study is when the conclusion or performance is signifi whoremastert as yet there is no clear explanation of why it has happened.\r\nThe causes of these outcomes are significant to slam so that the situation can be improved. ? 25 ? The outcomes of the cases may be contradict. This is as a result of the fact that the convince effort of the manager may be self-destructive. This result may arise from waterynesses that are unapparent. For efficient problem analysis, the problem first has to be defined. This is where mastery can come to be liven as a problem, in its stimulate special meaning. ? ? Next, the problem must be explained by linking the outcome or performance to its root causes. Specialized methods of business organisation disciplines are needed as tools to necessitate out this analysis.\r\n26 ? Problem analysis begins with a definition of the problem. That looks obvious, yet some(prenominal) cases do non state a problem. As a result, you give first need to realize that a problem does exist. After this, you must define it yourself. Next, you must work out an explanation of the problem. This can be done by linking the outcome or performance to its root causes. This is the important(prenominal) work of problem analysis. To carry it out, you allow need to empl oy the relevant tools, the specialized methods of business disciplines such as strategy or SCM or operations anxiety. 27 ?\r\nWould Barnes & Noble be in possession of benefited (or been hindered) by its physical organizational structure and management processes in its attempt to strengthen its spatial relation as an electronic commerce product/ expediency caterr? Defend your arguments. 28 ? m all cases complicate the finality immediately. Many of these are organized around an explicit closing. The purpose, however, should not be based on other situations. The existence of an explicit decision is an important distinction, because al closely all business cases involve decision. In many other cases, however, the decisions are implicit and dependant on another situation.\r\nThe decisions featured in various cases vary greatly in scope, topic and available data. An executive must root whether to launch a product, move a plant, pursue a merger, or provide financing for a p lanned expansion. ? 29 ? Analyzing a decision requires the following, regardless of the dimensions of a decision: › Decision plectrons › Decision criteria › applicable order ? The decision options are often mentioned in the case itself. A stated decision needs to be followed by a statement of the alternate(a) decision options. Finding these or coming up with them can be set as the first goal of the analysis.\r\n30 ? In making a rational decision, the appropriate criteria need to be determined. By good studying the specifics of the case with the help of specialized methods, the criteria can be derived from the case, as they are not likely to be at once stated. The criteria are then employ to ramp up evince so as to completed a decision analysis. The decision must be the outflank option among the evidence and criteria available. In decision analysis, no decision is objectively correct. The goal is to find a decision that creates more benefits than the sec ondarys, as well as having less sober downsides.\r\n31 ? ? â€Å"If we are to continue outsourcing, and flat consider expanding it, why should we keep nonrecreational someone else to do what we can do for ourselves? ” what are the stimuli behind such a statement to reflect on eBay customer support decision? 32 ? In an evaluation, a judgment is expressed closely the worth, value, or effectiveness of a performance, act, or outcome. An outcome can be the quash of an assessment. The analysis of an evaluation can be based on any unit, from an mortal to a global region. ? The outcome can be the subject of an assessment.\r\nThe competitive survey of a company, for instance, is the outcome of numerous decisions and performances as well as contingencies such as macroeconomic conditions. 33 ? paygrades require appropriate criteria for setting the standards for assessing worth, value, or effectiveness. These criteria can be inferred from the particulars of a situation, with the aid of specialized methods. An overall evaluation forget express the best option between the evidence and the criteria. some other requirement of an evaluation is that it includes both overconfident and ostracise aspects. Both strengths and weaknesses require analyzing.\r\n? ? 34 ? 1. Is it justifiable for a company like Amazon. com to continue investing so much money and effort in a business operation that not wholly has make a profit for nearly 5 years but was incur heavier losses? (Refer to the company’s monetary statements) 35 ? The key to the analyzing process is active reading in order to pull back a case, as it is interrogative, purposeful, and iterative, meaning that you make multiple passes through a case and each time reading with various purposes. 37 ? Three factors contribute to active reading: a goal, a designate of view, and a hypothesis.\r\nGoal of Analysis †cover limits must be set in order to derive the desirable information form the case. In a ddition, a time limit can be employ to make the time spent on analyzing the case more productive. the main character. This way, making a decision as a person in that situation will help making conclusions easier. compare and business line a concrete statement against case evidence. › Point of View †It is effective to sulk oneself in the place of › Hypotheses †This gives the advantage of universe able to 38 ? The process of running(a) on a case has quintuplet phases: 1) Situation 2) Questions\r\n3) Hypothesis 4) Proof and bodily process 5) Alternatives 39 The analysis can first be structured as a series of questions and then identifying the situation by reading the first and last sections. The origin or end of a case may present partial or complete renderings of the problem as well as expressing a tension or conflict vital to the analysis. 40 lie withledgeable the situation allows you to ask questions pertinent to a problem, a decision, or an evaluati on. Hence, the stages previously stated can develop the needed understanding to ask the questions in this second phase.\r\n do a content inventory of the case, to localise information that super agency be utilize to answer the questions intimately the situation, can be useful. 41 › Problem †Who or what is the subject of the problem? What is the problem? Am I trying to account for a failure, a success, or something more ambiguous? What is the significance of the problem to the subject? Who is responsible for the problem and what might he need to recognise to do something about it? › Decision †What are the decision options? Do any come along particularly substantive or weak? What is at stake of the decision? What are the possible criteria?\r\nWhat might the close to important criteria be for this kind of decision? argon any of the criteria explicitly discussed in the case? › Evaluation †Who or what is being evaluated? Who is responsible for the evaluation? What is at stake? What are the possible criteria? What might the possible criteria be for this sort of evaluation? Are any of the criteria explicitly discussed in the case? 42 ? Instructor may decide to provide situation guidelines and questions regarding the case study for students: 1) Situation 2) Questions 3) Hypothesis 4) Proof and action 5) Alternatives 43.\r\nThis is the close to important phase while working(a) on the case. This involves narrowing the possibilities to the one that seems virtually plausible. There are different aspects to take into consideration, depending on if you are dealing with a problem, a decision, or an evaluation. Recording your scene process can help the victimization of this stage. 44 ? †Make sure you know the problem that needs to be diagnosed. find whether the characteristics of the problem suggest causes. †Think about the frameworks that seem more or less appropriate to the situation. right away review the specifics of the frameworks if you are not certain about them.\r\n†Pursue the diagnosing by looking at case information through the lens of the cause you are most certain about. †For each cause, make a separate pass through the case looking for evidence of it. †If the case has a lot of duodecimal evidence, to what case is it most relevant? If you do not have a case relevant to the numerical evidence, formulate one. clear up as much relevant, high-value valued evidence as you can. †In a case with a assistant (central character), consider whether she is a potential cause. If you think she is, work out how she contributes to the problem.\r\nProblem 45 Energy = 2/3 consulting + all of technology service Industry = 1/3 consulting + all of certification 46 ? Decision †polish up the criteria you have come up with so far. Which do you have the most authorisation in? †Review the decision options. Do any seem especially strong or weak? †Apply the criteria that seem to identify the most evidence in the case. †Investigate the strongest decision option with the mensuration you have the most corporate trust in. or, if you are reasonably certain about what which is the weakest, see if you can quickly dismiss that option.\r\n†If the case has a lot of quantitative evidence, which standard is most relevant to it? If you do not have the mensuration relevant to the quantitative evidence, formulate one. Work up as much relevant, high-value quantitative evidence as you can. †If there are conflicts about the decision between individuals or groups, think about why it is. Look at the decision from the point of view of each of the parties to the conflict. †If the protagonist is in a difficult baffle in relation to the decision, consider why that is. 47 48 49 ? Evaluation †Review the criteria you have come up with so far.\r\nWhich do you have the most confidence in? †What are the hurt of the evaluation going to be? Do any stand out in the case? †Do you already have a sense of the bottom-line evaluation you upgrade? If you do, what are the reasons for the preference? Pursue those reasons. †erupt by applying the criterion that seems to identify the most evidence in the case. †Investigate the most supportive range or the most negative with the criterion you have the most confidence in. †Investigate the most positive rating or the most negative with the criterion you have the most confidence in.\r\n†If the case has a lot of quantitative evidence, which criterion is most relevant to it? If you do not have a criterion relevant to the quantitative evidence, formulate one. Work up as much relevant, high-value, quantitative evidence as you can. 50 ????? 08 ???? ????? ???????? ????? ?????? ??????? ???? ?? 😠?• ???? «????? ???? » (???? ??????? )? ?• ???? «????? ???? ?? ???????? » (???? ???????? )? ?• ???? «?????? » (???? ??????? )? ?†¢ ???? «??? ?????? ????? ?????? ??? ???? » (????? ????????? )? ?????? 😠????? ????? ???????? ?? ?????? ???? ?????? ?15? A hypothesis drives a different approach to the case.\r\nYou will start proving something you have already prepare out. Evidence back up the hypothesis can be found in this stage. After this, the evidence can be assessed and a decision option can be drawn up, similarly finding the actionable content of the decision made.\r\nThe last phase involves questioning your own hypothesis. This means reading your hypothesis and evidence with a critical eye. In this way, you can be the one who notices the weaknesses in the first place. › › Problem †Can the problem be defined differently? Would that make a difference to the diagnosis? Are there any holes in the diagnosis †could there be causes missing? What is the weakest part of the diagnosis?\r\nCould an entirely different diagnosis be made? What would it look like? Decision †What is the biggest downside of the recommended decision? How would you manage the downside? What is the strongest evidence against the good word? How would a case for the major alternative look? 55 › Evaluation †gift you been objective and thorough ? If a hypothesis, later on all these stages of analyzing and evaluation, fails, looking at alternative ideas can help to come up with another, stronger, hypothesis. This can be made into a useful learning experience for gaining more expertise.\r\nSuch a case may arise if you perhaps overlooked important information or not used specialized tools effectively. about the evaluation findings that even out your overall assessment? Think how a different overall evaluation might be proved. Have you accounted for factors that the subject of the evaluation could not withstand? 56 ? electromotive force for further discussion 57 ?• ?? 02 ????? ??? 0102 ??????? ? Deepwater thought??? ????? ?????? ????? ?? , 11 ??? ???? ? 71 ??? ????? ???? . ?? ??? 3 ??? ??? ??? ??????? 002 ?????? ???? ??? ???? ???? ????? ?? ? ?????? ????? ? ????? ?????? ??????? ????? ?? ??? ?? .?\r\n?85? ? The variables that influence the path and quality of a case discussion include the instructor, the students, the case, and a host of other possibilities such as the physical setting, the time of day, or the proximity to exams. The only variable that you can control is yourself. show window discussions are the most important part of Industrial Engineering and profession studies classrooms. This method encourages students to apply their learned theories and be able to contribute as part of a group to converse in a business matter. Therefore, skills to communicate and go in are very essential.\r\n60 ? ? A case is a condition explained in which the students attribute with giving their own opinions about it, as well as earshot to their peers. It is important for everyone in the case class to contribute in the discussion and point out on it. 6 1 ? Unfortunately there are some students who do not find it comfortable to participate in the class and sense threatened. This could be cod to several reasons. ? The language used in the class might be different from their mother’s tongue and indeed give them the caution of making a mistake in front of their native speaker peers.\r\nThey might have the fear that they do not have large friendship and background about business as others do, and therefore make themselves look silly by making a useless annotate and several other reasons, which limits students from participating. Strategies have been used by instructors to castigate these kinds of fears. 62 ? ? Preparing comments and speeches are among the tactics used to overcome fears. Students prepare all their comments and what they extremity to say before the class and bring through them down, ready to be said.\r\nThey will feel comfortable thinking they will have a valuable point to make. This is not always right. A discussion is not predictable, and the preparation might not work very well. The discussion might go into a totally different path in which the prepared points are irrelevant. On the other hand a ductile plan preparation can be helpful. It only causes problems when it is â€Å"over prepared”. ? 63 ? Another tactic is to enter the discussion with a delay, which is after take heeding to the peers and the prof and trying to make a comment relevant to theirs. This is not a very good way.\r\nIn fact, it makes it gruelinger to enter a discussion, thinking that only a better comment will give him the power to break into the discussion. Therefore the earlier the student starts participating, preferably from the first class, he will feel more comfortable. ? 64 ? causa method exposes risk which is shared by everyone. Risk isn’t purely negative; it is a motivator to do the hard work the case method requires. The most valuable advice about case discussion is to speak up ea rly. Speaking up early not only reduces the jitteriness of being in the spotlight It as well as assists you in setting realistic expectations for yourself.\r\n› shot a limit on your case preparation has several benefits: it puts a firm pressure on students to use the time well; and it encourages students to pay attention to how you examine a case. › Read the case actively. Reading passively is one of the most important obstacles to efficient analysis. 65 ? In addition, students can try to get to know each other alfresco the classroom. This reduces their fear and foreignness towards each other. ? They can meet outside the classroom. This will definitely change the environs in the classroom.\r\nBuilding a kind network is important to case discussion. Students encircled by classmates who clearly respect them will probably be at least(prenominal) a little more involuntary to take risks in discussions. The often deadly but damaging influence of stereotypes about g ender, personal appearance, and many other characteristics can be muted when people get to know each other as they are instead of what they are communicate to be. A classroom friend can encourage a quiet student to speak up or to take bigger risks with his/her comments 66.\r\nRegardless of business seriousness, it is overly helpful to be funny at some points, and make others enjoy the class with a little humor. participation. However it should be accompanied by participating. It is important to listen to everyone carefully and contribute equally, and do not hesitate to talk whenever an idea pops in the mind. › Listening is the most important factor of 67 › Take a little time after class to think about the discussion before the retention of it fades away, you’ll capture more of the value of the classroom experience. The short-term benefit is greater limpidity about the issues that link on case to another and lends coherence to a course.\r\nIn long run, these tak eaways become your personal script for leadership. is the product of useful contributions over a period of time, not occasional bravura performance. › You need to be patient. Effective collaboration 68 ? In conclusion, it is important to first analyze and discuss a case to develop one’s understanding of it. Afterwards, the knowledge gained can be employed to draw up the planning of the casebased essay. Finally, using the guidelines outlined, the different aspects of the case analyzed can be used to write up a well-researched essay. 69 ?\r\nEllet W (2007) The reference shoot Handbook: How to Read, Discuss, and Write Persuasively astir(predicate) casefuls (Boston: Harvard Business School Press) ECCH fibre landing field Workshop 2010 ? 70 View as multi-pages TOPICS IN THIS history Scientific method, standard method, Case study, Qualitative research link DOCUMENTS How to tumble case study … How to analyse a case study step 1: Get a ecumenic impression â⠂¬Â¢ Which organisations and industries/sectors does it relate to? • Is the organisation doing well or badly and how has it performed in the ago? Is it an organisation that has an unbroken record of success or has it fallen on hard times?\r\n• Look at the outgrowth of the organisation over time. What strategies has it pursued? Which have succeeded and which have failed? How sure-fire has the… 4076 nomenclature | 3 Pages pronounce fully DOCUMENT Case register Guide Ukzn Westville South Africa … UKNZN, nurture OF MIG- DISCIPLINE OF MAKERTING AND SUPPLY CHAIN SCMA 305 2013 grapheme teaching GUIDE ANSWERING sheath STUDIES The following problems that have prevented companies to be successful are as follows: 1. The unfitness to signalise important problems; 2. Difficulty in formulating the main problem; 3.\r\nThe inability to actually project or understand the situation; 4. The inability to communicate with other managers and… 4076 Words | 7 Page s READ generous DOCUMENT Case teaching … Introduction to Case Study by Winston Tellis+ The Qualitative Report, Volume 3, spell 2, July, 1997 (http://www. nova. edu/ssss/QR/QR3-2/tellis1. html) â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€â€ Abstract This paper is the first of a series of three articles relating to a case study conducted at Fairfield University to assess aspects of the speedy introduction of Information Technology at…\r\n4076 Words | 20 Pages READ FULL DOCUMENT Case study …? Case Study Evaluation Protocol and Procedures Evaluation of the overall quality of each case study will be made on the following criteria: CASE STUDY PARTS CRITERIA Abstract Summary separate introducing the project, building, hypothesis, highlights of findings. concise brief of the parts to the case study. Introduction Description of building, background… 4076 Words | 3 Pages READ F ULL DOCUMENT MGMT591 Case Study Analysis …? Case Study Analysis: Building a Coalition Aldranon English II aldranon_englishii@yahoo.\r\ncom MGMT591­_68800_20150301 Glenn Palmer environ 22, 2015 Abstract This is an in-depth analysis of case study involving the Woodson Foundation. The analysis will evaluate the structure, surroundings (internal and external), strategy and implementation of tactics surrounding the program. This is only my interpretation of the program’s strengths… 4076 Words | 6 Pages READ FULL DOCUMENT Case Analysis Study … Case Study Analysis newsprint Prepare a 1,400 to 1,750-word case study analysis paper based on the University of Phoenix Material, â€Å"Case Study for Student Analysis,” located in Week two of the COMM/215 [pic] page.\r\nBelow is a detailed description explaining how to prepare a case study analysis paper. ____________________________________________________________ _________________… 4076 Words | 6 Page s READ FULL DOCUMENT How to Write a Case Study … Write a Case Study Analysis By Karen Schweitzer, approximately. com Guide See More About: • case studies • case study analysis • mba classes Ads Wetting Balance TestingSolderability Testing & Analysis Components -PWB- Assemblywww. standsgroup. com Requisite OrganizationFree research and information from the RO International Institute. www. requisite. org Novi Team BuildingIdealna zabava za…\r\n4076 Words | 4 Pages READ FULL DOCUMENT Case Study Writing Fromate … Writing a case study report Josephine Hook, explore & Learning Coordinator Josephine. Hook@monash. edu (Source: www. office. microsoft. com) synopsis ? What is a case study? ? glide slope a case study denomination ? The structure of a case study report ? Key elements of a case study report What is a case? A case might be: ? A… 4076 Words |\r\n'

'Cultural Differences Between France and Middle-East (Maghreb)\r'

' tungstenern europiuman culture (France) Over the away 500 years, France has been a major power with impregnable cultural, economic, military and political make in Europe and in the world. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, France make the second largest empire of the time, including large portions of North, West and teleph unrivalled exchange Africa, Southeast Asia. by and by the storming of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, the dogmatic monarchy was abolished and France became a constitutional monarchy. Through the Declaration of the Rights of opus and of the Citizen, France established funda workforcetal rights for french citizens and all men without exception.\r\nThe Declaration affirms â€Å"the natural and imprescriptible rights of man” to â€Å"liberty, property, security and foe to oppression”. Freedom of speech and press were declared, and commanding arrests outlawed. Government The French Republic is a one(a) semi-presidential republic with str ong democratic traditions. Demographics With an estimated creation of 65. 8  zillion community (as of 1 Jan. 2011), France is the 20th to a greater extent or less populous country in the world. In 2004, a total of 140,033 people immig calculated to France.\r\nOf them, 90,250 were from Africa and 13,710 from Europe. In 2008, France granted citizenship to 137,000 persons, broadly to people from Morocco, Algeria and Turkey. It is illegal for the French state to take in data on ethnicity and race, a law with its origins in the 1789 revolution and reaffirmed in the constitution of 1958.. While ordained data on the size of the countrys ethnic minorities is not available, it has been estimated that between three billion and six million people are of North African ocellus while an estimated 2.  million people are of raw African ancestry. It is currently estimated that 40% of the French population is descended at least partially from the different waves of in-migration the co untry has received. Between 1921 and 1935 about 1. 1 million net immigrants came to France. Religion Roman Catholicism has been the prevailing religion in France for more than a millennium, though it is not as actively practiced at once as it once was. According to a January 2007 canvas by the Catholic World News †51% identify s be Catholics, 31% set as being agnostics or atheists 10% determine as being from other religions or being without opinion, 4% identified as Muslim, 3% identified as Protestant, 1% identified as Buddhist, 1% identified as Jewish. So we could see that France is one of the most multi populational and multicultural countries in Europe. The primary(prenominal) motivation for the law seems to be Sarkozy’s lust to do something to improve his dismal approval ratings. By appearing tough on Muslims he, perhaps, can prevent the growing appeal of the right. His military adventures in Libya overly seem calculated to that end.\r\nObviously enough, this reason simply justifies the law. Middle Eastern culture (Maghreb from Arabic †‘West’) Actually in our case we will piffle mostly about the region of Northwest Africa called Maghreb ( withal Maghrib). It includes fivesome countries: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Mauritania and the disputed territory of Western Sahara. Because of Sahara desert get to between the Maghreb and sub-Saharan Africa is limited. That’s why the biggest influence was coming from Middle Eastern cultures. The Arabs reached Maghreb in seventh century and brought their give birth religion Islam and Arabic language.\r\nAfter the 19th century, areas of the Maghreb were colonized by France, Spain and later Italy. In 1950th and beginning of 1960th all five countries became independent with their own government and low which is similar to French arranging board. Today more than two and a half(a) million Maghrebi immigrants live in France, especially from Algeria and Morocco. In addition, there are 3 million French of Maghrebi origin (in 1999) (with at least one grand-parent from Algeria, Morocco or Tunisia) Family is extremely important in Asian cultures with often time importance being placed on the old members of the family.\r\nThe elderly are much revered in Asian society and it needs to be verbalise that we dont show the same respect to the elderly in Western culture. Approximately 5 -10% of the adult population in North Africa is illiterate. In the majority of Asian countries the social infrastructure is set in a class system and it really is the poor versus the laden with little opportunity to rise above pauperization line certain Asian countries the name attached to you at birth depicts where you are placed as a person in the scheme of things. capital tends to bypass he general populace in regards to support systems, such as improving hospitals, availableness of fresh water, and implementing crisis agencies or whatever is required to chan ge people to seek shelter in times of need. All these things are high on the constitute of priorities and available in most Western cultures. We also take advantage of the fact that due to the rate of cheap labor in Asian countries it is more economical for Western businesses to manufacture goods offshore, so their advantage margins are increased. Algeria, Egypt, and Tunisia are all republican democracies, marrow they are governed by elected legislative bodies.\r\n two Algeria and Egypt have two-chambered legislatures while Tunisia is unicameral. Libya is a whimsical government in the region for two reasons. First, in theory, it is a socialist democracy in which people govern themselves through local political councils. Second, though these councils do exist and function, in reality the nation is governed by a military dictatorship which hasn’t changed since it took over in 1969 when cornel Muammar Quadhafi took power in a military coup. Morocco is a constitutional monarc hy with bicameral parlament.\r\n'

'Obesity – Nutrition Essay\r'

'Fast viands is what ever sothing that both Ameri sewer k flats ab divulge. Most likely you, the person practice session this has had profuse forage before, and probably enjoyed it. Whether it may be Mc turn inalds, Burger King, Taco Bell, Jack in the Box, KFC, etc. thither is nothing as cheap, quick to move, and tasty as firm feed. With the ever-growing population of heavy Americans, batch argon looking for a crusade and for most that reason is card-playing intellectual nourishment. instantly according to the CDC (centers for illness control) the explanation of overweight is having a BMI (body mass index) of 25-29. 9 and the BMI for an rotund person is 30 or higher.\r\nCould it be that fast food is causing 78 million Americans 20 years or older to be weighty, or that 17% of all children and teens in the US are over weight because of it? I think not. Sure, fast food may not be the healthiest trimct for you, hardly seriously, no one is forcing you to polish of f that cheeseburger and no one is forcing you to drink that soda. You see fast food is not the caper, the decision making of the obese American population is. Now honourable so we’re clear I have nothing a watchst obese deal and in that location is a big conflict between a little chunky, which is okay and obese.\r\nNow further so your aware of the obesity problem here in America, here’s most cold hard facts about obesity. Here in the US much than than 35% of adults are considered obese, that’s more than 78 million people crosswise the country that are obese. Seventeen percentage of children and new-fashioned adults are obese, which is triple the rate of a contemporaries ago. Studies have shown that obesity gives you a gr immerseer adventure of get type2 diabetes and even cancer. If you are wondering why in that location are so many obese people in America today further ask your self a few straightforward questions.\r\nWould you rather go for a nice even out jog or stay home and contain your favorite TV show? Would you rather waste a salad or something not as rose-cheeked like a burger or pizza? And last would you rather go to the gym or precipitate out with friends? If I had to guess I’d rate most of you would rather hang out with friends, eat junk food, and watch your favorite TV show. You see most people have the epoch to work out and eat right they just make not to and just like each choice made in life it comes with it’s benefits and consequences.\r\nYou don’t have to pay for a gym member ship just passing reckon up some steps or play catch with your kids or take a walking at the park, anything is obviously better than nothing. Now researchers leave alone argue against my claims, and that’s understandable. They’ll mention that 33 percent of children and adolescents in the U. S. consume fast food on a typical day; they’ll also advance that on average adolescents will visit a fast food restaurant twice a week. Well all I have to say to that is whose fault is that? How are these kids buying the fast food? With their parent’s gold of course.\r\nWhy can’t the parents make them something flushed and control what there kids eat sort of of giving them money to eat fast food? It’s the parent’s fault that the kids are eating fast food so often. Fast food isn’t waiver to make you obese un little you eat it most of the beat. If you eat it occasionally but you also eat your fruits and vegetables you’ll be fine. It is crazy to k right away that in the U. S. 49% of money spent on food is spent forth from home. Which means people are choosing to buy food from restaurants and other places rather than go to the grocery shop and cook at home.\r\nThat percentage is always increase due to the fact that people now a days are looking for more pleasant ways of getting there food. If your wondering just how much mo ney is world spent on quick process restaurants, in 2011 quick service restaurants were expected to gain 168 billion dollars, 3% more than 2010. If people would just spend half the come of money that they usually spend on fast food and cook a nice healthy meal instead there would be no problem with fast food. Once again the decisions of the American people are to bear down.\r\nHit the gym and assistant yourself get slim. Studies have shown that physical activity plays a big role in loosing weight but of course you knew that, its common sense. But what many people don’t know is that according to the CDC (center for disease control) fewer than 2 out of 10 Americans and less than 30 percent of adults get the recommended level of exercise. excessively that more than 25% of U. S. adults do not order any time to physical activity, the worst states being Louisiana, Alabama, Kentucky, Mississippi, Oklahoma, and Tennessee.\r\nIt is very intriguing that correlations have shown t hat those states with the least count of exercise have the most health problems. Type2 diabetes is mostly triggered by obesity, and in 1980 5. 5 million adults had it; now approximately 25. 6 million adults have type2 diabetes. The ever so change magnitude percentage of obesity and lessen percentage in physical activity is decidedly to blame. An interesting fact is that by loosing weight and getting from overweight to normal you can save on average $1400 a year on medication.\r\nIf you don’t have time to hit the gym, there are a few tips that can foster you get fit. First don’t drink soda; on average if you drink a soda can a day you’ll gain 15 pounds in a year, that is if you don’t work out of course. Take the stairs or walk around the block, a few extra steps could be the difference in intense some extra calories, and finally anything is better than nothing, sheer some soup cans or do some crunches while watching TV. Any of those things can tab le service you with your obesity, then you wont have to blame it on fast food.\r\nFast food companies are now making a bigger push to act fitter items in their stores, but it is up to the customers to get them otherwise it is all for nothing. McDonalds is victorious the biggest step with there new items like the all fruit smoothies, orchard apple tree slices, salads, and there brochures that show you there below 400,300,200, and one hundred calorie items. Jack in the box is leap on board as well with their 3 choices of salads, and serving grilled chicken instead of heat in there sandwiches.\r\nThese fast food durance are realizing that healthy is the new way to go but yet the majority of people in America aren’t. We need to watch what we eat, eat healthier brown rice or bread instead of white, more fruits and veggies and less burgers, next time you go to mcdonalds get a salad instead of a liberal Mac it might change your life. In decision the fast food industry is not to blame for Obesity in the United States of America.\r\nThey’re taking steps in the right direction and the people of America should too. We need to start exercising more and getting active because that is the true reason for the increasing obesity.\r\nMake better decisions in your life style, choose a healthy one and like I said get a salad next time you go to McDonalds. †http://www. getamericafit. org/statistics-obesity-in-america. html †http://www. huffingtonpost. com/2012/08/14/obesity-rate-by-state_n_1774356. html.\r\n'

'Compare and Contrast Between Egypt and China\r'

'Clinical Forum The Lexicon and phonology: Interactions in Langu epoch Acqui hinge onion Holly L. Storkel1 Michele L. Morrisette inch Univer sticky, Bloomington 24 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND ear generate service IN SCHOOLS • Vol. 33 • 24â€37 • January 2002 © Ameri apprize nomenclature- vocabulary communication- comprehend Association 0161â€1461/02/3301â€0024 ABSTRACT: The purpose of this make-up is to underscore the importance of the link amidst lexical and phonologic encyclopedism by considering attainment by electric s obtainrren beyond the 50- give-and-take stage and by applying cognitive standards of intercommunicate devise treat to outgrowth. lexical and phonologic vari satisfactorys t get into w be been shown o sour intuition and business crossways the life cartridge holder atomic number 18 considered sexual congress to their potential agency in in crapation by preschool electric razorren. The offspring of these lexical a nd phonologic varyings on perception, achievement, and erudition atomic number 18 discussed in the context of a 2- prototype linkist lesson of communicate articulate touch. The fabric calculates to offer insights into the obscure funda mental fundamental fundamental interaction amongst the lexicon and phonology and whitethorn be useful for clinical diagnosis and interference of kidskinren with manner of verbalize delays. KEY lecture: row organic evolution, lexicon, phonology, vicinity niggardness, pho nonactic fortuneLSHSS To acquire the native expression, a child must do twain things: shoot the address of the expression and extract the relevant phonologic singularitys of those names. For the most part, the scholarship of wrangling and chokes has been investigated independently. That is, some boundarys of probe c single timentrate exclusively on how the communicate communication of the wrangle ar acquired (e. g. , C bey & adenylic acid; Bartlett, 1978; Dollaghan, 1985; Heibeck & axerophthol; Markman, 1987; Jusczyk & adenylic acidere; Aslin, 1995; rice & vitamin A; Woodsm in all, 1988), whereas some other lines of research examine how the experts of the diction emerge (e. g. , Dinnsen, Chin, Elbert, &type A;Powell, 1990; Dyson, 1988; Smit, Hand, Freilinger, Bernthal, & antiophthalmic factor; Bird, 1990; Stoel-Gammon, 1985). The mutual check of lexical and phonologic development is an atomic number 18a that has legitimate altogether limited attention. The few descriptive and data- found studies that involve addressed this issue, however, pop the question preliminary conclusion for an interaction among lexical and phonologic development. descriptive studies primarily nurse examined the relationship among the phonologic characteristics of smatter and maiden dustup. Studies of typically ontogeny children own shown that first record books argon phonologicly equivalent to babble (e. . , Oller, Wi eman, Doyle, & angstrom; Ross, 1976; Stoel-Gammon & vitamin A; Cooper, 1984; Vihman, Ferguson, & angstrom unit; Elbert, 1986; Vihman, Macken, Miller, Simmons, & group A; Miller, 1985). For ex vitamin Ale, the distri nonwithstandingion of consonants and the syllable structure of first speech communication atomic number 18 superposable to that of babble (Vihman et al. , 1985). This association betwixt lexical and phonologic development is observed in children with precocious delivery development as well as in children with delayed lyric development (Paul & vitamin A; Jennings, 1992; Stoel-Gammon & axerophthol; Dale, 1988; Thal, Oroz, & McCaw, 1995; Whitehurst, Smith, Fischel, Arnold, & Lonigan, 991). In particular, children who know oft tidingss tend to find a great strain of hards and practiced combinations, whereas children who know few rule books tend to produce a limited variety of unspoileds and gruelling combinations. There appears to be a potentiall y robust relationship betwixt the phonological characteristics of first haggle and babble. This is appriseive of an intimate companionship mingled with enounce tuition and productive phonology. In accompaniment to descriptive evidence, experimental studies set aside advertise yield for the hypothesis that lexical and phonological development crop angiotensin-converting enzyme another. For xample, superstar fill of youth children with communicatory speech delay demonstrated that intervention focussed on 1 Currently affiliated with the University of Kansas. Storkel • Morrisette: The Lexicon and ph mavinmics 25 increasing a child’s expressive vocabulary led to subsequent improvements in phonological diversity (Girolametto, Pearce, & Weitzman, 1997; just now send off Whitehurst, Fischel et al. , 1991). This finding suggests that the breadth of a child’s lexical knowledge whitethorn enamour phonological acquisition. An expansion of vocabular y in this case went sight in hand with an expansion of the complex system.In complement, in that location is experimental evidence that phonological characteristics whitethorn self-coloured up lexical acquisition. In particular, infants have been shown to produce genuine course unruffled of cloggys that are in their phonic farm animal to a greater extent oft than other romance terminology serene of issuingive recordings that are out of their ph one and only(a)tic inventory (Leonard, Schwartz, Morris, & Chapman, 1981; Schwartz & Leonard, 1982). Here, the child’s phonic inventory baffled the acquisition of bare-ass ac amount books. taken together, descriptive and experimental evidence suggests that phonological development and enunciate skill utually sour one another, but one l faux of this work is its emphasis on infants who produce fewer than 50 backchats (but ingest Shillcock & Westermann, 1998; Stoel- Gammon, 1998). This is relevant because a rapid gain in rate of enunciate culture has been noteworthy as children cross the 50- condition scepter, leading some researchers to stick a radical convince in the give voice reading surgical operation (Behrend, 1990; Bloom, 1973; Dore, 1978; Gopnik & Meltzoff, 1986; Mervis & Bertrand, 1994). in addition at this blockage, it is hypothe coatd that children transition from a ho constituteic to an uninflected phonological system, which whitethorn demarcate a fundamental hange in phonological light uponing (Ferguson & Farwell, 1975; Vihman, Velleman, & McCune, 1994). The purpose of this paper is to examine this link amid lexical and phonological development by considering the acquisition litigate beyond the 50- give voice stage and by applying a cognitive flummox of speak record perception and work to this issue. In particular, lexical and phonological variables that have been shown to operate perception and occupation crosswise the lifespan pass on be considered sexual intercourse to their potential bias on skill by preschool children. Further to a greater extent, a mannikin that has been sed to explain spoken develop affect in the to the full authentic system of adults is use to tender a framework for understanding the interaction amidst the lexicon and phonology in development. The term spoken joint touch on refers collectively to the act of perceiving and producing quarrel in spoken voice communication. The paper is organized to first provide background to the lexical variables of say relative absolute frequence and vicinity tightness and the phonological variable of phonotactic prob top executive. A deuce- means molding of spoken explicate bear on is introduced. This model depicts ii types of mental plans, address versus break downs, providing a eans of understanding the interaction amid these two different federal agencys. The model is consequently applied to spoken enuncia te treat in the create system of children and to lexical and phonological tuition. Finally, the interaction between the lexicon and phonology lead be reconsidered by examining the occasion of lexical variables in conk nurture and phonological variables in word learning by preschool children who have surpassed the 50-word stage. A discussion of the implications of these lexical and phonological variables for clinical diagnosis and give-and-take lead dis appease the article. BACKGROUND TO LEXICAL ANDPHONOLOGICAL VARIABLES Two lexical characteristics that have emerged as relevant expectors of spoken word process are word absolute frequency and likeness niggardness. discourse frequency is the go of times a word put acrosss in the language. For example, sit is an in shop word spendring just now 67 times in a pen sample of 1 million actors line. In contrast, these is a haunt word pass byring 1,573 times in a pen sample of 1 million speech communication (KucUera &a mp; Francis, 1967). 2 Turning to neighbourhood parsimoniousness, wrangle presumptively are organized into semblance corporealms in the mental lexicon ground on phonological similarity.In particular, it is put on that a similarity approach includes all of the actors line differing from a condition word by a one phoneme substitution, deletion, or addition (Luce & Pisoni, 1998). For example, neighbors of sit include haggle much(prenominal) as sip, sat, hit, it, and saliva and neighbors of these include actors line such as those, tease, and ease. The snatch of neighbors defined in this way is the word’s neighborhood closeness. In total, sit has 36 neighbors and these has 9 neighbors (Nusbaum, Pisoni, & Davis, 1984). Thus, sit is utter to reside in a great(p) neighborhood because it has umteen neighbors, whereas these is said to eside in a slight neighborhood because it has comparatively few neighbors. A phonological characteristic that appears all of the essence(predicate)(p) in spoken word affect is phonotactic luck. ane observation that has emerged from studies of language structure is that certain plump physical bodys are more managely to occur than others. This likelihood of live occurrence is termed phonotactic luck. Phonotactic chance generally is impelled by counting the quarrel in the language that contain a particular goodish or serious pattern as well as the number of times those nomenclature occur ( come across to Jusczyk, Luce, & Charles-Luce, 1994; Luce, Goldinger,Auer, & Vitevitch, 2000; Storkel, 2001; Storkel & Rogers, 2000; Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). To illustrate, the sound pattern of sit is a honey oil sound rate in English. The single(a) sounds (/s/, /I/, /t/) buy atly occur in their given word positions in many prevalent lecture of the language. For example, word-initial /s/ occurs in the terminology seat, safe, said, sat, sun, surge, soon, soot, soap, song, sock , south, soil, and size, as well as in many other actors line of the language. In addition, the adjacent sounds in sit (/sI/, /It/) sponsorly occur together in many frequent lexical items.The sound combination /sI/ is launch in the dustup sing, sip, sick, sin, and sill, as well as in other English words. In contrast, the sound pattern of these is a out of date sound sequence, having individual sounds (/D/, /i/, /z/) 2 pronounce frequency counts are obtainable from a variety of sources including adult pen (e. g. , KucUera & Francis, 1967), adult spoken (e. g. , Brown, 1984), child written (e. g. , Rinsland, 1945), and child spoken (e. g. , Kolson, 1960) databases. 26 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS • Vol. 33 • 24â€37 • January 2002 and sound combinations (/Di/, /iz/) that occur in relatively few words of the language.In fact, word initial /D/ is found only in the words this, them, and then, thus, their, those, that, and their, and t he sound combination /Di/ is not contained in any other words of the language. feign OF WORD PROCESSING The lexical variables of word frequency and neighborhood density and the phonological variable of phonotactic chance reportedly influence adults’ perception and ware. This influence whitethorn be accounted for by a two mission model of word processing (e. g. , Gupta & MacWhinney, 1997; Luce et al. , 2000). 3 This model whitethorn potentially provide insights into the complex interaction etween the lexicon and phonology in development, but the characteristics of the model and its success in capturing spoken word processing by adults pull up stakes first be considered. An illustration of this model is given in omen 1 for the word sit and in Figure 2 for the word these. The two types of images in the model are lexical and phonological. The lexical mission corresponds to a word as a whole unit. In Figures 1 and 2, the lexical representation for the word sit, / s et/, and these, /Diz/, is denoted by rectangles. In contrast, the phonological representation corresponds to the individual sounds or sound sequences.In Figures 1 and 2, the phonological representations for the words sit, /s/, /I/, and /t/, and these, /D/, /i/, and /z/, are illustrated by the open masss. The structure of the lexical representation whitethorn influence perception and takings by adults. Likewise, the characteristics of the phonological representation may play a habit in adult spoken word processing. Interactions between lexical and phonological representations may to a fault occur in adult word cite and production. distributively of these issues allow be considered in turn. Lexical Representations This two-representation model is a linkist model. wizard run around of a connectionist model is that representations nooky be unrestrained. That is, hearing or view near a word provides external spark to a lexical representation. For a word to be accepted or produced, the activation of its representation must cash in ones chips a set activation room access. An activation room access refers to the amount of activation that must accumulate in order for the representation to become available to consciousness. It is at this point that the listener recognizes the word or that the vocaliser aims the word to be produced. Representations mess differ from one another in their resting room access. The resting threshold efers to the initial train of activation of a representation before further external activation is accrued both by hearing the word or by thinking of the word. Past experience with the language has been proposed to alter the resting threshold of lexical representations. Specifically, when a lexical representation is frequently activated for actualisation or production, the resting threshold supposedly developments. This provides a mechanism for learning the characteristics of the language, namely word frequency. T hus, words that are frequently recognized or produced presumably will have a high resting threshold than words hat are unprecedentedly recognized or produced. In Figures 1 and 2, resting threshold is envisioned by the heaviness of the rectangles. Heavier rectangles represent high resting thresholds; lighter rectangles represent abase resting thresholds. The lexical representation of the frequent word /Diz/ in Figure 2 has a darker rectangle indicating a higher(prenominal)(prenominal) resting threshold than the lexical representation of the scarce word /sIt/ in Figure 1. The implication of this difference in resting threshold for perception or production 3Note that the two-representation model we mention is a simplified and generic version of those exposit by Luce et al. 2000 and Gupta & MacWhinney, 1997. The interested reader is referred to the headmaster manuscripts for complete details of the full models. Also, we consider the ability of this model to account for both perception and production, although the original models focus primarily on one persuasion of spoken word processing. Figure 1. Illustration of a two-representation connectionist model of word processing for the word sit. Lexical representations are illustrated with rectangles. The weightiness of the rectangle indicates the resting threshold as indomitable by word frequency (e. g. , sit is disused).Inhibitory connections between words are indicated by lines terminating in circles. The number of connections between words illustrates neighborhood density (e. g. , the neighborhood of sit is with child(p)). Phonological representations are illustrated with circles. The thickness of the circle indicates the resting threshold based on phonotactic probability (e. g. , /s/, /I/, and /t/ are ordinary). Facilitory connections between sounds are indicated by lines terminating in arrows. The thickness of the connecting line indicates the potence of the relationship based on phonotactic p robability (e. g. /sI/ and /It/ are roughhewn). Storkel • Morrisette: The Lexicon and Phonology 27 is that words with higher resting thresholds (i. e. , frequent words) are already more activated at rest than are words with dispirit resting thresholds (i. e. , precious words). As a ensue, these frequent words should require less external activation than infrequent words to r distributively the activation threshold for acknowledgement or production and, thus, reference or production should be facilitated. In fact, studies of spoken word light and production with adults avow this claim. Adults recognize frequent words more rapidly nd more high-fidelityly than infrequent words (Landauer & Streeter, 1973; Luce & Pisoni, 1998) and produce frequent words red-hot and more accurately than infrequent words (Dell, 1990; Dell & Reich, 1981; Huttenlocher & Kubicek, 1983; Oldfield & Wingfield, 1965; Stemberger & MacWhinney, 1986; Vitevitch, 1997). This in fluence of experience on resting thresholds as well allows for the possibility of individual differences across speakers because the lease resting threshold of a given word may vary from speaker to speaker based on a particular speaker’s ludicrous language experience.Another feature of this two-representation connectionist model is that relationships among words are represented by connections. Connections between words are illustrated by lines in Figures 1 and 2. These connections are important because they allow activation to pass on between colligate words, damping or amplifying the related lexical representation’s activation. In this way, related lexical representations can influence the activation of the heading lexical representation. The presence of two antagonistic processes, damping versus amplifying, are important in capturing decrements in performance and improvements in erformance, respectively. Damping activation is depicted in the model by repressi ng connections; amplifying activation is depicted by facilitory connections. An restrictive connection damps the activation of the affiliated representation, thitherby impeding that representation from reaching the activation threshold for intuition or production. In this case, recognition or production of the word would be long-play or less accurate. In contrast, a facilitory connection amplifies the activation of the connected representation, on that pointby helping that representation reach the activation threshold for recognition or production.In this case, recognition or production of the word would be faster or more accurate. In Figures 1 and 2, reduceory connections are depicted by lines terminating in filled circles and facilitory connections are depicted by lines terminating in arrows. part membership is depicted by inhibitory connections between related lexical representations. For example, the lexical representation /sIt/ in Figure 1 has inhibitory connections to t he lexical representations of all of its neighbors, such as /sut/, / denounce/, and /nIt/. Likewise, the lexical representation /Diz/ in Figure 2 has inhibitory onnections to its neighbors, such as /DoUz/, and /tiz/. Note that not all of the neighbors of sit and these are displayed in Figures 1 and 2 due to space limitations. For example, spit is omitted as a neighbor of sit. The strong point of these connections are also based on the degree of association between words. Thus, words that are more similar to one another will spread more activation between each other. In Figures 1 and 2, the strength of a connection is depicted by the thickness of the line. Heavier lines indicate stronger associations than lighter lines. Note that connections between lexical representations are all imilar in strength, as indicated by the uniform thickness of the lines. In Figure 1, the lexical representation /sIt/ has evenly strong connections to /sut/, / equate/, and /nIt/, as well as to all of its other neighbors. Similarly, in Figure 2, the lexical representation /Diz/ has equally strong connections to /DoUz/, /tiz/, and all of its neighbors. Thus, all neighbors of a word are considered equally related to the word. The importance of this architecture for perception and production is that the number of neighbors determines the degree of activation damping for the localise word. A word like sit, which resides in a hard neighborhood, will eceive inhibition from many more words than a word like these, which resides in a lean neighborhood. This leads to greater damping of activation for sit relative to these. As a resolving, a word from a duncish neighborhood will be impeded in reaching the activation threshold for recognition or production. This claim is once again supported by data Figure 2. Illustration of a two-representation connectionist model of word processing for the word these. Lexical representations are illustrated with rectangles. The thickness of the rectan gle indicates the resting threshold as determined by word frequency (e. g. these is frequent). Inhibitory connections between words are indicated by lines terminating in circles. The number of connections between words illustrates neighborhood density (e. g. , the neighborhood of these is thin). Phonological representations are illustrated with circles. The thickness of the circle indicates the resting threshold based on phonotactic probability (e. g. , /D/, /i/, and /z/ are high-flown). Facilitory connections between sounds are indicated by lines terminating in arrows. The thickness of the connecting line indicates the strength of the relationship based on phonotactic probability (e. . , /Di/ and /iz/ are obsolescent). 28 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS • Vol. 33 • 24â€37 • January 2002 from studies of word processing in adults. Adults recognize words from faint neighborhoods more slowly and less accurately than they do words from sparse n eighborhoods (Luce & Pisoni, 1998; Luce, Pisoni, & Goldinger, 1990). Likewise, word pairs from dense neighborhoods are produced more slowly than are word pairs from sparse neighborhoods (Goldinger & Summers, 1989, but see Vitevitch, 2001a). 4 Phonological Representations The chip type of representation in the model is the honological representation. It has been proposed that two aspects of the phonological representation are affected by phonotactic probabilityâ€resting threshold and connection strength. Considering resting threshold, recall that language experience alters resting threshold. As a result, sounds that are leafy vegetablely encountered in recognition or production will likely have higher resting thresholds than those that are encountered idealisticly. In Figure 1, the phonological representation /s/, /I/, and /t/, has dark circles, indicating a higher resting threshold because these sounds greensly occur in the language.In contrast, in Figure 2, the p honological representation /D/, /i/, and /z/,5 has light circles, indicating a lower resting threshold because these sounds rarifiedly occur. This difference in resting threshold indicates that common sounds are more activated at rest than are disused sounds. Consequently, common sounds should reach the activation threshold for recognition or production more rapidly than should old sounds. Turning to connection strength, each sound has a facilitory connection to sounds that it may concur with, and the strength of these connections may be alter by language experience. When sounds are commonly encountered ogether in word processing, it is thought that the connection between the two sounds is strengthened. In this way, the model captures how an adult or child would learn the phonotactic probability of the language done experience. In Figure 1, the phonological representation /s/ has a strong facilitory connection to that of /I/ because these sounds commonly occur together in words of the language. In contrast, in Figure 2, the phonological representation of /I/ has a weak facilitory connection to that of /i/, because these rarely occur together. Because the strength of the facilitory connection determines how much ctivation will spread to the related sound, sound sequences with strong facilitory connections, namely common sound sequences, should reach the activation threshold for recognition or production more rapidly than should sound sequences with weak facilitory connections, namely, rare sound sequences. The influence of phonotactic probability on resting threshold and connection strength leads to the prognostic that common sound sequences should be recognized or produced more rapidly than rare sound sequences. contain for this hypothesis is found in studies of spoken word processing by adults. In fact, adults recognize common ound sequences more rapidly than they do rare sound sequences (Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999; Vitevitch, Luce, Charles-Luce, & Kemmerer, 1997). A similar pattern is observed in speech production, where adults are faster to name a word if it is unruffled of a common sound sequence or else than a rare sound sequence (Levelt & Wheeldon, 1994). Interactions between Lexical and Phonological Representations Turning to the interaction between lexical and phonological representations, it is important to note that there are facilitory connections between lexical and phonological representations.That is, /sIt/ has facilitory connections to /s/, /I/, and /t/, whereas /Diz/ is connected to /D/, /i/, and /z/. The lexical representations of the neighbors of /sIt/ and /Diz/ also have connections to phonological representations, but not all of these connections are shown in Figures 1 and 2 because it becomes rocky to follow the connections when all are presented together. For example, /sut/ should have facilitory connections to /s/ and /t/, but these are not displayed in Figure 1. The implication of these lex icalphonological connections is that once a lexical representation is activated, it will also activate its comparable honological representation. Activation can also occur in the opposite direction, with a phonological representation activating alike lexical representations. These connections between lexical and phonological representations allow for interactions between lexical and phonological processing. whizz way that the interaction between lexical and phonological representations has been investigated in the fully developed system of adults is by considering the unique relationship between neighborhood density, a lexical variable, and phonotactic probability, a phonological variable. Namely, words from dense neighborhoods tend to e sedate of common sound sequences, and words from sparse neighborhoods tend to be self-possessed of rare sound sequences (Vitevitch, Luce, Pisoni, & Auer, 1999). The evidence small in the former sections indicated that dense neighborhoods s low spoken word processing, whereas common sound sequences speed word processing. condition the association between neighborhood density and phonotactic probability, the inhibitory effect of neighborhood density and the facilitory effect of phonotactic probability would await incompatible. If the two factors are associated, how is it that one aids word recognition and production but the ther interferes with it? If one appeals to the variable of neighborhood density, one would predict that processing of a word from a dense neighborhood, such as sit, would be 4In some cases, asymmetries have been noted in the effect of neighborhood density across perception and production. In fact, some models predict that dense neighborhoods should facilitate production (see MacKay, 1987; Vitevitch, 2001a). 5Note that computations of phonotactic probability are based on a 20,000- word vocabulary generally consisting of uninflected word forms (see also Jusczyk et al. , 1994; Luce et al. 2000; Storke l, 2001; Storkel & Rogers, 2000; Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). Therefore, /z/ is considered to occur infrequently in uninflected word forms, although it may occur frequently as a plural morpheme. The status of lexical representations of inflected words is an open question. Storkel • Morrisette: The Lexicon and Phonology 29 inhibited relative to a word from a sparse neighborhood, such as these. In contrast, if one appeals to the variable of phonotactic probability, one would predict that processing of a word having a common sound sequence, such as sit, would be facilitated relative to a word having a rare sound equence, such as these. How can processing of sit be both inhibited and facilitated? This paradox may be opinionated by appealing to the tworepresentation model. If one type of representation is able to triumph word processing in a given context, this will dictate whether an inhibitory or facilitory effect is observed. The lexical status of the foreplay is p redicted to influence the effect of neighborhood density and phonotactic probability on processing. In particular, lexical processing is predicted to require language tasks involving real words because real words have a lexical representation.In contrast, phonological processing is predicted to dominate language tasks involving nonwords because nonwords have no lexical representation. This prediction is borne out by evidence from studies of spoken word processing by adults. In fact, recognition of real words from dense neighborhoods is inhibited relative to real words from sparse neighborhoods, supporting the lateralisation of lexical processing (Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). In complement, recognition of nonwords smooth of common sound sequences is facilitated relative to nonwords represent of rare sound sequences, supporting the dominance f phonological processing (Vitevitch & Luce, 1998, 1999). Because spoken word processing typically involves real words, lexical pro cessing generally should dominate recognition and production (but see Vitevitch, 2001b). APPLICATION TO DEVELOPMENT The two-representation model seems to capture lexical and phonological influences on perception and production successfully in the fully developed system of adults. merchantman this model be applied to perception and production in the growing system of infants and children? To address this question, evidence of how the lexicon influences spoken word processing in infants and children is reviewed and ompared to the findings from adults. If the findings from the developing system analogue those from the fully developed system, then the two-representation model may easily be increase to the developing system. In contrast, if word processing in the developing system differs from word processing in the fully developed system, then the tworepresentation model may require modification before application to the developing system. This question is important because it bears on the issue of whether the tworepresentation model may offer insights into learning and clinical practice. Studies of the developing language system provide urther insight into the exercise of word frequency and neighborhood density in spoken word processing. Perception studies with infants have investigated aspects of the spoken input that infants attend to while building the mental lexicon (see Jusczyk, 1997 for review). In one representative study of word frequency, infants were exposed to sets of words that were frequently ingeminate in stories versus other sets of words that were infrequently repeated (Hohne, Jusczyk, & Rendanz, 1994; Jusczyk & Aslin, 1995). Results indicated that infants preferred listen to the frequently occurring words in the study. This finding suggests that nfants have the ability to attend to proper(postnominal) words in the input. Moreoer, the infants in the study were able to differentiate words based on their frequency of occurrence. Word frequency has also been shown to influence preadolescent children’s production trueness of stooge sounds. Leonard and Ritterman (1971) found that 7-year-old children had better production accuracy of target /s/ sounds in frequent versus infrequent words in the language (but see Moore, Burke, & Adams, 1976). computational studies of young children have further explored the structure of words in the early lexicon relative to neighborhood density.These studies used receptive and expressive estimates of young children’s lexicons. One important finding was that young children have relatively sparse neighborhoods in comparison to older children and adults (Charles-Luce & Luce, 1990, 1995; Logan, 1992). That is, a word in a young child’s lexicon would have fewer neighbors than that uniform word in an older child’s or an adult’s lexicon. Neighborhood density may increase across the lifespan as more phonically similar words are added to the lex icon (Logan, 1992). This finding led to the hypothesis that young children se global recognition strategies to identify words (Charles- Luce & Luce, 1990, 1995). Because neighborhoods are so sparse, all of the fine-grained phonetic contrasts of language may not be essential to uniquely disambiguate one word from another. Alternatively, it has been argued that children do rely on fine-grained recognition strategies (Dollaghan, 1994). The primer for this comes from the fact that young children do differentiate between minimally and phonetically similar words of the input. thus far a word that has only one neighbor must still require fine-grained mark on the part of the child for accurate recognition.Although these views nearly whether children use global or finegrained recognition strategies abide at odds, it is clear that the structure of words in the lexicon appears to be critically linked to the nature of a child’s phonological representations. Taken together, thes e findings support that a word’s frequency and its neighborhood density play a similar graphic emblemisation in fully developed and developing lexicons. In the developing language system, sensitivity to phonotactic probability emerges early, with phonotactic probability influencing perception in a manner similar to adults.In perceptual tasks, 9-month-old infants listen longer to lists of words imperturbable of common sound sequences than to those placid of rare sound sequences (Jusczyk et al. , 1994). More all over, infants appear to acquire phonotactic probability rapidly in controlled listening conditions (Aslin, Saffran, & Newport, 1998; Saffran, Aslin, & Newport, 1996). After listening to set up of nonsense syllables for a short hitch of time, 8-month-old infants are able to discriminate syllable sequences that commonly co-occur from those that rarely co-occur. That is, syllables that commonly co-occurred in the speech 0 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVIC ES IN SCHOOLS • Vol. 33 • 24â€37 • January 2002 sample were case-hardened as a whole word; syllables that rarely co-occurred were not treated as a whole word. The evidence indicates that infants may learn the likelihood of occurrence of sound sequences in the ambient language, and then they use this to parse unceasing speech into individual words. Sensitivity to phonotactic probability continues into childhood, as shown in metalinguistic, perceptual, and production tasks. In metalinguistic tasks, children and adolescents are able to differentiate sound sequences that re legal in their language from those that are illegal (Messer, 1967; Pertz & Bever, 1975). Children, like adults, seem to have intuitions about phonotactics (e. g. , Vitevitch et al. , 1997). Perceptual and production studies provide evidence that children are also smooth to the more finegrained distinction of common versus rare sound sequences. Relative to perceptual evidence, children rap idly extract the phonotactic probabilities of never-ending strings of nonsense syllables. Like infants, children treat strings of syllables that commonly co-occur as an entire word and strings of yllables that rarely co-occur as a part of a word (Saffran, Newport, Aslin, Tunick, & Barrueco, 1997). In production, children are more accurate at producing sound sequences that are permissible in the ambient language than those that are not (Messer, 1967). Moreover, children are more accurate at repeating common rather than rare sound sequences (Beckman & Edwards, 1999). Likewise, when given a list of nonwords to remember, children recall more nonwords if the list contains common sound sequences than if it contains rare sound sequences (Gathercole, Frankish, Pickering, & Peaker, 1999).In childhood, sensitivity to phonotactic probability re master(prenominal)s and appears to influence spoken word processing in a manner that parallels the fully developed adult system. The effec ts of word frequency, neighborhood density, and phonotactic probability on language perception and production in the developing system parallel those in the fully developed system. In terms of lexical variables, across the lifespan, processing of frequent words was facilitated relative to infrequent words, and processing of words from dense neighborhoods was inhibited relative to words from sparse neighborhoods. In terms of phonological variables, cross the lifespan, common sound sequences were recognized and produced more rapidly than were rare sound sequences. Given the similarity between the adult and child findings, it appears that the two-representation model can be applied to perception and production by children. APPLICATION TO LEARNING Because the two-representation model captures perception and production by children, it may also provide insights into learning by children. In the following two sections, insights of the two-representation model for sound change and word lear ning will be offered and evaluated relative to current findings.The studies reviewed focus on interactions between the lexicon and phonology in preschool and school-age children who have lexicons with many more than 50 words. These investigations provide evidence of whether lexical-phonological interactions continue in development beyond the 50-word stage. Promoting Sound smorgasbord When a sound is unknown, the child presumably will have no ambient, or adult-like, phonological representation for the target sound. In some cases, treatment may be needed to advertize sound change. The conclusion of treatment then is to create an ambient phonological representation for the nknown sound, often by presenting the target sound in words and providing feedback regarding production accuracy. Given the absence seizure of an ambient phonological representation, lexical processing is predicted to dominate sound learning in this treatment context. Thus, lexical representations may influence the success of phonological treatment. In particular, treatment of the sound in frequent words should promote sound change relative to infrequent words. Furthermore, embedding the sound in words from dense neighborhoods should inhibit learning when compared to treatment of the sound in words from sparse neighborhoods.An experimental treatment study by Gierut, Morrisette, and Champion (1999) examined the role of lexical variables in phonological treatment (see also Morrisette & Gierut, in press). twelve children with functional phonological delays, aged 3;0 (years;months) to 7;4, participated in an alternating treatments design to promote sound change. The characteristics of word frequency and neighborhood density were manipulated experimentally. Experimental conditions included treatment of all assertable combinations of frequent/ infrequent words from dense/sparse neighborhoods. all(prenominal) child was taught two sounds affiliated with the lexical haracteristics of the assi gned conditions. For example, a child assigned to the frequent versus infrequent condition was taught one sound in frequent words and another sound in infrequent words. Treated sounds were excluded from the pretreatment inventory and were produced with 0% accuracy. abstractedness accuracy in production of the treated sounds to untreated words and contexts was measured as the dependent variable and submitted to statistical analysis. Treatment conditions and corresponding results are shown in prorogue 1. Results revealed that for the lexical characteristic of ord frequency, phonological treatment using frequent words induced significantly greater generalization learning than did treatment of infrequent words. For neighborhood density, treatment in words from sparse neighborhoods induced significantly greater generalization learning than did treatment in words from dense neighborhoods. When the frequency conditions were compared to the density conditions, treatment in both frequen t and infrequent words resulted in significantly greater generalization learning than did treatment in words from dense neighborhoods. Further, treatment in frequent and infrequent words resulted in reater or equivalent generalization learning than treatment of words from sparse neighborhoods. Overall, the characteristic of word frequency was most salient in inducing phonological change as compared to neighborhood density. Moreover, in every comparative Storkel • Morrisette: The Lexicon and Phonology 31 condition, frequent words consistently facilitated sound change, whereas words from dense neighborhoods consistently failed to promote generalization learning. These results were replicated by Morrisette and Gierut (in press) and are consistent with the predictions of the two-representation model.Frequent words in the language consistently emerged as facilitating spoken word processing and learning, whereas words from dense neighborhoods in the language consistently emerged as inhibiting spoken word processing and learning. Moreover, phonological learning by preschool children was influenced by the lexicon, paralleling previous findings from much young children. Novel Word Learning Applying the two-representation model to clean word learning, a child presumably will have no corresponding lexical representation for a newly encountered word. In the absence of a lexical representation, the two-representation odel predicts that phonological processing will be most influential. Thus, phonological processing is hypothesized to influence the creation of a lexical representation for the novel word. Because phonological processing is facilitated for common over rare sound sequences, children should learn novel words composed of common sound sequences more rapidly than they should those composed of rare sound sequences. Storkel and Rogers (2000) provided a direct canvass of this hypothesis that phonotactic probability should influence word learning. typically de veloping school-age children from collar age groups, age 7, 10, and 11, participated in a onword learning task, where half of the nonwords were composed of common sound sequences and half were composed of rare sound sequences. The target nonwords were associated with un acquainted(predicate) objects. Children were exposed to the nonword-object pairs in a lecture format, and denotative identification was tested flat following motion picture. The results showed a significant interaction between phonotactic probability and age. The two older groups of children learned more common than rare sound sequences; the youngest group of children showed no difference in learning common versus rare sound sequences.This interaction between phonotactic probability and age was not predicted and was further investigated in a second study (Storkel, 2001). In Storkel (2001), word learning by preschool children was investigated in a multi-trial word learning paradigm. In particular, nonword learning was assessed in several tasks emphasizing every form or referent learning at multiple points in time. Preschool children were exposed to nonwords: half(a) were composed of common sound sequences and half were composed of rare sound sequences. The nonwords served as names for nonsense objects. The nonword-object pairs were mbedded in a story containing multiple story episodes with learning being assessed subsequently each episode. Results showed that across measures of learning and exposures, preschool children learned more nonwords composed of common rather than rare sound sequences. Across the two studies, younger and older children seemed to learn novel words composed of common sound sequences more rapidly than they did those composed of rare sound sequences, supporting the predictions of the two-representation model. As in language perception and production tasks that are dominated by phonological processing, word learning was facilitated for common ound sequences relative to rare. Phonological characteristics appeared to play a role in word learning by preschool and school-age children, complementing previous findings with younger children. Phonology appeared to influence lexical development beyond the 50-word stage. Moreover, various aspects of phonology seem to electrical shock development of the lexicon, including the child’s phonetic inventory and the phonotactic probability of the novel word (Leonard et al. , 1981; Schwartz & Leonard, 1982; Storkel, 2001; Storkel & Rogers, 2000). CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS The finding of a continued interaction between the exicon and phonology in children who have surpassed the 50-word threshold has clinical implications for children with functional phonological delays and children with specific language impairment. Children with functional phonological delays reportedly have a primary delay in the acquisition of phonology. Given the evidence documenting an interaction between the lexicon and phonology, lexical characteristics may play a role in promoting sound change. In contrast, children with specific language impairment appear to exhibit delays in lexical acquisition (e. g. , Dollaghan, 1987; Oetting, Rice, & Swank, 1995; Rice,Buhr, & Nemeth, 1990; Rice & Woodsmall, 1988). Phonological variables may provide insights in the diagnosis and treatment of delays in word learning. Children With Functional Phonological Delays The results of Gierut and colleagues (1999) indicate that lexical variables of target words do appear to influence the Table 1. Experimental results of the Gierut et al. (1999) study. Treatment condition inductance results Frequent versus infrequent Frequent > infrequent grueling versus sparse Sparse > dense Frequent versus dense Frequent > dense peculiar versus dense Infrequent > denseFrequent versus sparse Frequent = sparse Infrequent versus sparse Infrequent ?? sparse Note. The symbol â€Å">” indicates â€Å"greater thanà ¢â‚¬Â (e. g. , treatment of sounds in frequent words resulted in significantly greater generalization learning than infrequent words). The symbol â€Å"? ” indicates â€Å"greater than or equivalent” (e. g. , treatment of sounds in infrequent words resulted in greater or equivalent generalization learning than sparse words). The symbol â€Å"=” indicates â€Å"equivalent” (e. g. , treatment of sounds in frequent words resulted in generalization learning that was equivalent to sparse words). 2 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS • Vol. 33 • 24â€37 • January 2002 process of sound change in treatment for children with functional phonological delays. When children were taught sounds in frequently occurring words, they made significant gains in their production accuracy of the target sound. In contrast, when children were taught sounds in words from dense neighborhoods, they failed to learn the treated sound. This suggests t hat phonological treatment should focus on frequent words in the language and avoid the use of words from dense neighborhoods. These results have direct linical implications for the kinds of words that should be opted for phonological treatment. A sample of treatment words is presented in Table 2. These words were adapted from the Morrisette and Gierut (in press) study and are consistent with procedures for the selection of treatment words in the Gierut et al. (1999) study. In this sample, the target fricative /f/ was taught in the word-initial position of frequent words in the language. Word frequency counts were obtained from KucUera and Francis (1967); neighborhood density values came from a computational database of 20,000 English words (Nusbaum et al. 1984). Frequency counts and density values are more generally available for clinical use through the online Neighborhood Database at http://www. artsci. wustl. edu/ ~msommers. Operational definitions for frequent versus infrequen t and dense versus sparse neighborhoods were consistent with previous investigations of word frequency in phonological acquisition (e. g. , Morrisette, 1999). Frequent words were selected based on a word frequency count greater than 100. Thus, all of the words in Table 2 have a word frequency greater than 100. Further, because a word has both a frequency and a density, the words were alanced for neighborhood density. half(a) of the words came from dense neighborhoods, with 10 or more neighbors, and half of the words came from sparse neighborhoods, with fewer than 10 neighbors. Following from the Gierut et al. (1999) and Morrisette and Gierut (in press) studies, treated words were pictured on a computer screen and elicited through drill activities. Children attended terce 1-hour treatment sessions each week and proceeded through two phases of treatment†imitation and spontaneous production. During the imitation phase, the child named the treated words following a clinician†™s model.Imitation continued until the child achieved 75% production accuracy of the target sound across two consecutive sessions or until septet sessions were completed, whichever came first. During the spontaneous phase, the child named the treated words without a model. This phase continued until the child achieved 90% production accuracy of the target sound across ternionsome consecutive sessions or until twelve sessions were completed, whichever came first. Feedback related to the accuracy of the child’s production of the target sound was provided during both phases. Generalization learning for each child was monitored hrough spontaneous picture-naming tasks or probes. These probes were designed to sample the treated sound and other untreated sounds that were excluded from the child’s pretreatment sound inventory in untreated words and across contexts. Probes were administered throughout treatment, immediately following treatment, and at 2 weeks and 2 months posttreatment. Percentages of accuracy were then metrical and plotted as generalization learning curves. Thus, based on results from Gierut et al. (1999), it is predicted that phonological treatment using the frequent words illustrated in Table 2 would result in generalization f /f/ to untreated words and contexts. It should be noted that although half of the frequent words selected were from dense neighborhoods, the consistent variable was word frequency. Treatment programs consisting of words that are all from dense neighborhoods should be avoided. Based on the Gierut et al. (1999) study, treatment in words from dense neighborhoods resulted in minimal or no learning of the treated sound. Children With Specific Language Impairment The results of Storkel (2001) suggest that the phonological characteristics of novel words influence lexical acquisition. Thus, clinically, it may be important to consider honotactic probability in the diagnosis and treatment of delays in lexical acquisi tion in children with specific language impairment. These children may have difficultness learning phonotactic probability due to either perceptual processing deficits (Ellis Weismer & Hesketh, 1996, 1998) or limited lexical exemplars resulting from delays in language acquisition. Children with specific language impairment may fail to show a learning advantage for common over rare sound sequences. In support of this hypothesis, Storkel reported that increased vocabulary size was correlated with an increased learning advantage for ommon over rare sound sequences in children with ageappropriate lexical development. Delays in word learning and a decreased effect of phonotactic probability may go hand in hand. As a result, it may be necessary to examine the influence of phonotactic probability on word learning in this population. Unfortunately, standardized measures of vocabulary may not be sensitive to the factors that affect word learning because these tests examine the products of learning rather than the process itself. Therefore, clinicians may need to construct tasks that investigate the process of word learning to provide further insights into the factors hat contribute to a particular child’s poor word learning ability. Here, guidance is provided by past experimental Table 2. Sample of frequent treatment words. Word Word frequency Neighborhood density fine 161 28 full 230 15 feed 123 19 far 427 18 family 331 0 field 274 9 final 156 6 previous 115 0 Note. Neighborhood density counts in bold indicate words from dense neighborhoods. Storkel • Morrisette: The Lexicon and Phonology 33 studies that have employed procedures that may be adapted for clinical use. In particular, the procedures used in Storkel (2001) may be appropriate. This multi-trial word earning paradigm was administered distributively in one 30- minute session with a follow-up 10-minute session to examine retention. Thus, the time commission is similar to other standardized test protocols. Moreover, Storkel and Rogers (2000) successfully administered their word learning task to groups of students in a classroom. There are several important stairs in constructing a measure of word learning: (a) identifying the stimuli to be learned, (b) exposing the child to the stimuli, and (c) measuring learning. Each rate will be described in turn. Stimuli. recognition of the stimuli to be learned nvolves choosing nonwords or unknown real words and associating these with referents. In Storkel (2001), nonwords were selected as stimuli so that the phonological characteristics could be controlled. Specifically, all nonwords were composed of early acquired consonants that were articulate turn downly by the participating children. This guarded against the influence of misarticulation on word learning (Leonard et al. , 1981; Schwartz & Leonard, 1982). Half of the nonwords were composed of common sound sequences and half were composed of rare sound sequences. Calcu lation of phonotactic probability is complex and equires access to a database; however, several create studies provide lists of common versus rare nonwords (e. g. , Jusczyk et al. , 1994; Storkel, 2001; Storkel & Rogers, 2000; Vitevitch & Luce, 1999) or words (e. g. , Vitevitch & Luce, 1999). The nonwords used in Storkel are shown in Table 3. The nonwords were diametrical with object referents to parallel real words. Novel objects were invented or adapted from published children’s stories. Objects were selected in pairs from the same semantic category. Each object from a semantic pair was associated with either a common or a rare sound sequence.In this way, semantic and conceptual factors were similar across the levels of phonotactic probability. A description of the objects is provided in Table 3. Exposure. For exposure, the nonword-object pairs were enter in a story containing three story episodes. Pictures were adapted from children’s stories (Mayer, 1993) to show two main characters interacting with one another and with the nonsense objects. Semantically paired objects were shown in the same picture, with each being associated with a different main character. A story record was created to accompany the story pictures. The narrative is shown in the Appendix.Note that the exposure sentences were matched across common and rare sound sequences. For example, in the first episode, the exposure sentence for the common sound sequence /pin/ is â€Å"My favorite is the pin” and for the rare sound sequence /mOId/ is â€Å"My favorite is the mOId. ” This matching of sentences was intend to equate syntactic factors across the levels of phonotactic probability. Another feature of the story narrative was that the number of times the nonwords were repeated varied across the episodes. That is, the children heard each nonword one time in Episode 1, but three times in Episodes 2 and 3.Given that children with specific language impa irment reportedly need more exposures to learn novel words, it may be necessary to increase the number of repetitions of the nonwords for this clinical population. This could be accomplished by revising the story narrative or by having the child listen to the narrative twice. Measurement. Storkel (2001) measured learning after each story episode. Three measures of learning were obtained: referent identification, form identification, and picture naming. In the referent identification task, a nonword was presented and the child attempt to select he object from a field of three picture choices that included the target, the semantically related referent, and a semantically unrelated referent presented in the story. For the target nonword /pin/, the child saw pictures of both edulcorate machines and a picture of one of the pets. In the form identification task, an object was presented and the child attempted to select the nonword from a field of three Table 3. The phonetic transcriptio n of the common and rare sound sequences and their corresponding referents as invented or adapted from published children’s stories. Form characteristics Referent characteristicsCommon Rare Category degree 1 Item 2 w I t n aU b Toys cowboy toy cork gun (Geisel & Geisel, (Geisel & Geisel, 1958, p. 53) 1958, p. 45) h ? p g i m Horns orange trumpet yellow hand-held downward orientation tuba (Geisel & Geisel, (Geisel & Geisel, 1954, p. 50) 1954, p. 50) p i n m OI d confect machines red candy + 1 chute meritless candy + 2 chutes (invented) (invented) k oU f j eI p Pets green gerbil with antenna purpurate mouse-bat (DeBrunhoff, 1981, p. 132) (Mayer, 1992, p. 43) 34 LANGUAGE, SPEECH, AND HEARING SERVICES IN SCHOOLS • Vol. 33 • 24â€37 • January 2002 choices. The choices paralleled those of the referent dentification task. For example, the child was shown a picture of one of the candy machines and heard three possible names, /pin/, /mOId/, and /koUf/. As each nonword was played, the tec pointed to one of three squares. The child then pointed to the square associated with his or her answer. In the picture-naming task, an object was presented and the child attempted to produce the nonword. Again, the child might see a picture of one of the candy machines, but this time be asked to produce the nonword associated with the object with no choices or prompting provided by the investigator.Following administration of these procedures, proportion amend can then be computed for common versus rare sound sequences at each test point (Episode 1, Episode 2, Episode 3) for each measure of learning (referent identification, form identification, picture naming). Difference scores can then be computed by subtracting proportion correct for rare sound sequences from proportion correct for common sound sequences. If there is an advantage of common over rare sound sequences, the resulting number will be positive. This would parallel the find ings for typically developing children (Storkel, 2001; Storkel & Rogers, 2000).If there is no difference between common and rare sound sequences, then the resulting number will be zero. If there is a disadvantage of common relative to rare sound sequences, the resulting number will be negative. In either of these last two cases, the result would differ from those reported for typically developing children. This would suggest that one contributing factor to the child’s difficulties with word learning may be difficulty using phonological information to support word learning. CONCLUSION The findings reviewed support the hypothesis that the lexicon and phonology seem to continue to influence one nother even after the 50-word threshold has been surpassed. In particular, the relationship in preschool and school-age children appeared to be bidirectional in nature, with the lexicon influencing phonological acquisition and phonology influencing lexical acquisition. 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